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Transpersonal The achievement of complete development at the end of adolescence was suggested by Freud, Piaget, and Binet among others. Research in Positive Adult Development questions not only that development ceases after adolescence, but also the notion of decline after late adolescence postulated by many gerontologists. Positive development does occur during adulthood. Recent studies indicate that such development is useful in predicting things such as an individual's health, life satisfaction, and degree of contribution to the society. The four major forms of adult development are positive adult development, directionless change, stasis, and decline. The first of the four forms, positive adult developmental processes, is divided into at least six parts hierarchical complexity (orders, stages), knowledge, experience, expertise, wisdom, and spirituality. Four categories describe what changes, each in a different manner. 1) Stages are a description of successful performance on tasks of increasingly higher orders of hierarchically complexity. Stages exist because the tasks underlying stage of performance are hierarchically ordered. Both maturation and learning are necessary for stage change. 2) Maturation is driven by a biological clock. It consists of changes in hormones, neural development, such as in the frontal lobes, pairing of cells through cell death, dendritic growth, and cross-linking of molecules. The value of reinforcers and therefore motivation change with hormones. 3) At different periods and seasons of life, roles change. Periods and seasons are descriptions of roles that are socially designated for parts of life. They partially depend on maturation and greatly depend on culture. Knowledge, skills and expertise are learned but do not require stage change. They describe how much one learns at a given stage. Skills and knowledge can be developed through training, experience, teaching, etc.
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